Welcome to a deep dive into the intriguing world of psychedelic mushrooms, a topic that bridges the gap between ancient wisdom and modern science. As an expert in the field of psychedelic mental therapies, I’m here to guide you through the complex and often misunderstood realm of magic mushrooms, particularly focusing on their potency and chemical variability.
Based on the table of tryptamine alkaloids concentrations, the 10 most potent magic mushrooms, as determined by the highest concentrations of psilocin (PS) and psilocybin (PSB), are:
- Psilocybe cyanescens
- Psilocybe serbica var. bohemica
- Psilocybe semilanceata
- Psilocybe azurescens
- Psilocybe cubensis
- Psilocybe caerulipes
- Psilocybe ovoideocystidiata
- Psilocybe mexicana
- Psilocybe serbica
- Psilocybe serbica var. moravica
In the realm of psychedelic therapy and microdosing, understanding the concentration of active compounds in wild mushrooms is crucial. This article presents a comprehensive analysis of psilocybin (PSB), psilocin (PS), baeocystin (BA), norbaeocystin (NB), and aeruginascin (AE) concentrations across various mushroom genera known for their psychotropic tryptamines.
The method? Ultra-high performance liquid chromatography paired with tandem mass spectrometry, a cutting-edge technique that allows for precise quantification of these mystical compounds.
This investigation covered an impressive array of 226 fruiting bodies from 82 distinct collections across seven mushroom genera, documented meticulously through fungarium specimens and ITS rDNA/LSU/EF1-α sequencing. Notably, this study reveals the concentrations of BA, NB, and AE in many mushroom species for the first time, expanding our understanding of these enigmatic fungi.
The findings highlight the Psilocybe species as the frontrunner in PSB/PS concentrations. However, intriguingly, no tryptamines were detected in the P. fuscofulva and P. fimetaria collections.
This points to an extraordinary variability in tryptamine concentrations among mushrooms, which poses a significant challenge for consumers and therapists alike. Such variability can lead to the risk of overdose and complicate the effects compared to therapies using chemically pure PSB.
This study, which we are about to delve into, stands as the most recent and science-based exploration in this field. Published online on 2022 Nov 15, and available under the DOI: 10.3390/ijms232214068, represents a significant contribution to our understanding of psychotropic mushrooms. It has been archived in the PubMed Central (PMC) with the ID PMC9693126 and has the PubMed ID (PMID) 36430546.
This work was conducted by Klára Gotvaldová, Jan Borovička, Kateřina Hájková, Petra Cihlářová, Alan Rockefeller, and Martin Kuchař.
These researchers have brought together their expertise in data curation, formal analysis, and writing, to present a groundbreaking study that pushes the frontiers of our understanding of psychedelic mushrooms. Join me as we explore their findings and implications.
Before we start, let’s explain the most important components: Psilocybin, Psilocin, Baeocystin, Norbaeocystin and Aeruginascin.
The key compounds found in many psychedelic mushrooms
Psilocybin: Psilocybin is perhaps the most well-known compound in psychedelic mushrooms. It’s a naturally occurring psychedelic prodrug compound, meaning it’s converted by the body into an active compound. In the case of Psilocybin, it is metabolized into Psilocin. Chemically, Psilocybin is a tryptamine alkaloid with a structure similar to the neurotransmitter serotonin. When ingested, Psilocybin is converted into Psilocin, which is the actual psychoactive compound. Psilocybin is known for its ability to induce altered states of consciousness, which can include visual and auditory hallucinations, changes in perception of time and space, and profound changes in mood and thought.
Psilocin: Psilocin is the pharmacologically active form of Psilocybin. Once Psilocybin is ingested, it’s quickly converted by the body into Psilocin, which then exerts psychoactive effects.
Psilocin has a similar chemical structure to serotonin and interacts with serotonin receptors in the brain, particularly the 5-HT2A receptor, which is thought to be responsible for its psychedelic effects. Psilocin can produce a wide range of effects, including visual and auditory hallucinations, emotional changes, altered perception of time, and spiritual experiences. Its effects can vary greatly depending on the dose, the individual, and the setting in which it’s used.
Baeocystin: Baeocystin is a less well-known compound, also found in certain species of psychedelic mushrooms. Structurally, it’s similar to Psilocybin and Psilocin but has a methyl group instead of a phosphate group found in Psilocybin. There is less known about the psychoactive effects of Baeocystin, as it’s typically present in smaller quantities in mushrooms.
It’s considered a minor compound compared to Psilocybin and Psilocin, and its role in the overall effects of psychedelic mushrooms is not fully understood. Some researchers speculate that it may contribute to the psychoactive profile of the mushrooms, but more research is needed to understand its specific effects and how it interacts with other compounds in the mushrooms.
Norbaeocystin (NB): Norbaeocystin is a tryptamine alkaloid structurally related to psilocybin and psilocin, the primary psychoactive compounds in many psychedelic mushrooms.
Chemically, norbaeocystin is similar to psilocybin but lacks a phosphate group. While it’s present in some psilocybin-containing mushrooms, norbaeocystin is typically found in much smaller quantities than psilocybin or psilocin.
The psychoactive effects of norbaeocystin are not well understood, largely because its concentration in mushrooms is usually too low to produce noticeable effects on its own. However, it’s believed to contribute to the overall psychoactive profile of these mushrooms, possibly modulating or enhancing the effects of psilocybin and psilocin.
Aeruginascin (AE): Aeruginascin is another tryptamine alkaloid found in magic mushrooms, most notably in the species Psilocybe aeruginosa. The structure of aeruginascin is similar to that of psilocybin, with the primary difference being the addition of a trimethylammonium group.
This compound has attracted interest due to its potential role in the effects of psychedelic mushrooms, but like norbaeocystin, its specific psychoactive properties are not fully understood.
There is some speculation in the scientific community that aeruginascin may contribute to the unique effects of certain mushroom strains, potentially influencing the overall psychedelic experience. However, further research is needed to fully understand its role and effects.
The 10 Most Potent Magic Mushrooms, According To Science
To understand which mushrooms are the most potent based on the data in Table 1, we’ll focus on the concentrations of key psychoactive compounds, particularly Psilocybin (PSB) and Psilocin (PS), since they are primarily responsible for the psychedelic effects.
| Mushroom Species | AE (mg/g) | BA (mg/g) | NB (mg/g) | PS (mg/g) | PSB (mg/g) | Potency of Mind Effect |
| Panaeolus cinctulus | ― | 0.118–1.525 | 0.045–0.477 | 0.007–0.257 | 0.114–1.578 | Medium |
| Pholiotina cyanopus | ― | 0.821–1.360 | 0.247–0.565 | 0.000–0.062 | 0.000–0.859 | Low |
| Pluteus americanus | 0.008–0.014 | 0.154–0.410 | 0.067–0.162 | 0.123–0.347 | 1.172–2.428 | High |
| Pluteus glaucotinctus | 0.012 | 0.224 | 0.484 | 0.013 | 1.939 | High |
| Pluteus salicinus | 0.014–0.024 | 0.032–0.157 | 0.018–0.044 | 0.037–0.070 | 0.306–1.353 | Medium |
| Psilocybe caerulescens | <LOQ | 0.009–0.013 | <LOD | 0.341–0.413 | 0.225–0.310 | Medium |
| Psilocybe caerulipes | 0.018–0.028 | 0.063–0.141 | 0.019–0.052 | 0.501–2.770 | 2.234–5.674 | High |
| Psilocybe cubensis | 0.026–0.053 | 0.139–0.881 | 0.044–0.161 | 0.208–5.344 | 0.651–3.509 | High |
| Psilocybe cyanescens | 0.011–0.039 | 0.216–2.852 | 0.102–0.978 | 0.409–10.018 | 2.340–13.808 | High |
| Psilocybe medullosa | <LOD | 0.007–0.406 | 0.000–0.215 | 0.000–0.051 | 0.143–1.003 | Low |
| Psilocybe mexicana | 0.006–0.007 | 0.254–0.328 | 0.159–0.203 | 1.944–1.974 | 3.286–3.934 | High |
| Psilocybe ovoideocystidiata | 0.004–0.013 | 0.164–0.699 | 0.031–0.568 | 0.026–5.464 | 0.914–7.172 | High |
| Psilocybe semilanceata | 0.010–0.033 | 0.725–4.467 | 0.121–0.510 | 0.033–0.619 | 1.280–11.421 | High |
| Psilocybe serbica | ― | 1.748–3.385 | 1.010–1.946 | 0.215–3.810 | 1.562–3.957 | High |
| Psilocybe serbica var. arcana | 0.000–0.024 | 0.000–2.237 | 0.000–0.794 | 0.412–7.922 | 0.002–8.878 | High |
| Psilocybe serbica var. bohemica | 0.008–0.093 | 0.234–2.473 | 0.173–1.282 | 0.027–2.485 | 1.553–15.543 | High |
| Psilocybe serbica var. moravica | 0.053–0.249 | 0.293–0.822 | 0.453–2.012 | 0.061–0.386 | 5.655–14.158 | High |
| Psilocybe sp. | ― | 0.282–0.965 | 0.031–0.144 | 1.489–2.051 | 0.512–1.892 | High |
| Psilocybe subaeruginosa | ― | 0.009–0.011 | <LOQ | 0.081–0.326 | 0.102–0.195 | Low |
| Psilocybe zapotecorum | 0.021 | 0.430–0.481 | 0.208–0.211 | 0.293–0.369 | 9.022–9.655 | High |
Based on the table of tryptamine alkaloids concentrations, the 10 most potent mushrooms, as determined by the highest concentrations of psilocin (PS) and psilocybin (PSB), are:
- Psilocybe cyanescens
- Psilocybe serbica var. bohemica
- Psilocybe semilanceata
- Psilocybe azurescens
- Psilocybe cubensis
- Psilocybe caerulipes
- Psilocybe ovoideocystidiata
- Psilocybe mexicana
- Psilocybe serbica
- Psilocybe serbica var. moravica
1. Psilocybe cyanescens
Psilocybe cyanescens, commonly known as “Wavy Caps,” is a species of potent psychedelic mushroom. It is characterized by a hygrophanous cap that is caramel to chestnut-brown when moist, fading to pale buff or slightly yellowish when dried. The caps are usually 1.5–5 cm across and distinctly wavy at maturity. Most parts of the mushroom, including the cap and gills, can stain blue when touched or otherwise disturbed, likely due to the oxidation of psilocin.
These mushrooms typically grow on wood chips, especially in and along the perimeters of mulched plant beds in urban areas, but they can also thrive on other lignin-rich substrates. P. cyanescens does not grow on substrates that are not rich in lignin, and they do not typically grow on mulch made from bark.
The fruit bodies of P. cyanescens contain various indole alkaloids, including psilocybin, psilocin, and baeocystin. It’s been found that the indole content in North American specimens is higher than in European ones, with North American fruiting bodies containing between 0.66% and 1.96% total indole content by dry weight.
This makes North American specimens of P. cyanescens among the most potent psychedelic mushrooms, leading to their popularity among users of recreational drugs in regions where they grow naturally.
2. Psilocybe serbica var. Bohemica
Psilocybe serbica has a cap that is 1–4 cm in diameter, initially conical, later becoming campanulate or convex. The cap color ranges from buff-brown to orangish-brown, turning ochraceous when dry. The flesh bruises blue when injured, and the spores are purple-brown, ellipsoid, and slightly flattened. The gills are initially light brown, becoming dark brown with age, with paler edges. The stipe (stem) is 45–80 mm long and 2–10 mm thick, whitish with a silky gloss.
It predominantly grows in groups on well-decayed deciduous and coniferous wood, often found in moist places such as along creeks, forest paths, and roadside verges. Unlike Psilocybe cyanescens, it is not commonly reported to grow on woodchips.
Psilocybe serbica var. arcana and var. Bohemica are notable for their high concentrations of psilocin and psilocybin. The concentration of these compounds in var. Bohemica is significantly higher than in var. arcana, making it one of the most potent Psilocybe species in Europe.
3. Psilocybe semilanceata
Psilocybe semilanceata, commonly known as the liberty cap, is a species of fungus notable for producing psychoactive compounds such as psilocybin, psilocin, and baeocystin. It is one of the most widely distributed and potent psilocybin mushrooms in nature. The mushrooms feature a distinctive conical to bell-shaped cap, up to 2.5 cm in diameter, with a small nipple-like protrusion on the top. The color ranges from yellow to brown, with radial grooves when moist, lightening as they mature. The stipes are slender and long, and the gill attachment to the stipe is adnexed, starting as cream-colored and becoming purple to black as the spores mature.
Psilocybe semilanceata thrives in grassland habitats, especially in wetter areas. Unlike P. cubensis, it does not grow directly on dung but is a saprobic species that feeds off decaying grass roots.
It is predominantly found in the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, especially in Europe, and has been occasionally reported in the temperate areas of the Southern Hemisphere. The earliest reliable record of P. semilanceata intoxication dates back to 1799 in London. By the 1960s, it was the first European mushroom species confirmed to contain psilocybin.
4. Psilocybe azurescens
Psilocybe azurescens, also known as the “Flying Saucer Mushroom,” is a species of psychedelic mushroom notable for its high potency.
Psilocybe azurescens contains psilocybin, psilocin, and baeocystin, making it one of the most potent tryptamine-bearing mushrooms. It contains up to 1.8% psilocybin, 0.5% psilocin, and 0.4% baeocystin by dry weight.
This mushroom naturally occurs along a small area of the West Coast of the United States, particularly in parts of Oregon and California. It grows in tight, separated clusters or gregariously on deciduous wood-chips and/or in sandy soils rich in woody debris. The species has an affinity for coastal dune grasses and causes the whitening of wood. Fruitings typically begin in late September and continue until late December or early January.
Legal Status: The possession and/or cultivation of Psilocybe azurescens is illegal in many countries, including under federal law in the United States. However, some states it is classified as a Class A drug.
5. Psilocybe cubensis
Psilocybe cubensis, often referred to as the “magic mushroom,” “shroom,” “golden halo,” “cube,” or “gold cap,” is a well-known species of psilocybin mushroom. It is recognized for its moderate potency and is commonly found due to its widespread distribution and ease of cultivation. This species is particularly notable for being optimal for home cultivation, which has contributed to its common presence on the black market as a street drug.
In terms of habitat, Psilocybe cubensis typically grows on cow dung, occasionally on horse dung, sugar cane mulch, or rich pasture soil. This species is prevalent from February to December in the northern hemisphere and from November to April in the southern hemisphere. In Asia, it is also found growing on water buffalo dung. The species is believed to have been introduced to Australia with the introduction of cattle, where it grows from northern Queensland to southern New South Wales.
The psychoactive compounds in Psilocybe cubensis, including psilocin and psilocybin, vary in concentration. The concentrations of these compounds, as measured by high-performance liquid chromatography, range from 0.14–0.42% (wet weight) and 0.37–1.30% (dry weight) in the whole mushroom.
The cap contains 0.17–0.78% (wet weight) and 0.44–1.35% (dry weight) of psilocybin, while the stem contains 0.09%–0.30% (wet weight) and 0.05–1.27% (dry weight). Generally, it is estimated that there is approximately 15 mg (±5 mg) of psilocybin per gram of dried mushroom. However, the content of these psychoactive substances can vary depending on factors such as the age of the mushroom and the method of storage.
6. Psilocybe caerulipes
Psilocybe caerulipes, often known as the “blue-footed mushroom” or “blue-staining Psilocybe,” is a distinct species of psilocybin mushroom with its own unique characteristics. While not as widely recognized as Psilocybe cubensis, it holds its own place among enthusiasts of psychedelic fungi.
In terms of appearance, Psilocybe caerulipes is distinguished by its blue-staining reaction when bruised or handled. The cap of this mushroom typically ranges from brown to reddish-brown in color and can measure up to 2.5 cm in diameter. The stem, as the name suggests, often exhibits a bluish tint when touched or damaged.
Habitat-wise, Psilocybe caerulipes can be found in various locations in the eastern United States, particularly in hardwood forests and along riverbanks. It has a preference for decaying wood and plant material, often growing on or near fallen logs and leaf litter. Its growing season typically extends from late spring to early fall, depending on local climate conditions.
Like Psilocybe cubensis, Psilocybe caerulipes contains psychoactive compounds, including psilocybin and psilocin. However, the concentration of these compounds may vary. The exact levels can be influenced by factors such as the age of the mushroom and environmental conditions. While it may not be as well-studied as some other psilocybin mushrooms, Psilocybe caerulipes has garnered interest among those exploring the diverse world of psychedelic fungi for its unique characteristics and effects.
As with any psychedelic mushroom, it’s essential to exercise caution and responsibility when considering the use of Psilocybe caerulipes or any other psychoactive substance, taking into account local laws and regulations.
7. Psilocybe ovoideocystidiata
Psilocybe ovoideocystidiata, often referred to simply as “ovoideocystidiata,” is a lesser-known species of psilocybin mushroom that has gained attention among enthusiasts and researchers in recent years. It is distinct from more commonly recognized species like Psilocybe cubensis.
In terms of appearance, Psilocybe ovoideocystidiata features a small to medium-sized cap, typically ranging from 1 to 2.5 cm in diameter. The cap’s color can vary but often appears as reddish-brown to brown with a conical or bell-shaped structure. The stem is slender, and the mushroom’s overall appearance is relatively delicate compared to some other psilocybin-containing fungi.
Habitat-wise, Psilocybe ovoideocystidiata is commonly found in the eastern United States, particularly in regions with hardwood forests and rich leaf litter. It has a preference for decaying wood, such as fallen branches and woody debris. This species typically fruits from late spring to early summer.
One distinguishing feature of Psilocybe ovoideocystidiata is its unique cystidia, which are specialized cells found on the mushroom’s cap surface. These cystidia can vary in shape and size, contributing to the mushroom’s taxonomic characteristics.
Like other psilocybin mushrooms, Psilocybe ovoideocystidiata contains psychoactive compounds, including psilocybin and psilocin. However, the concentration of these compounds can vary from one mushroom to another and may be influenced by factors such as environmental conditions and substrate composition.
While Psilocybe ovoideocystidiata may not be as widely recognized as some other psilocybin-containing species, it has garnered attention for its unique features and potential for recreational and research purposes. As with any psychedelic substance, it’s essential to approach the use of Psilocybe ovoideocystidiata with caution and responsibility, considering legal regulations and safety guidelines.
8. Psilocybe mexicana
Psilocybe mexicana, often referred to as the “Mexican magic mushroom,” is a notable and historically significant species of psilocybin mushroom known for its use in indigenous Mesoamerican cultures for centuries. It is one of the earliest documented sources of psychedelic mushroom use.
In terms of appearance, Psilocybe mexicana typically features a small to medium-sized cap, ranging from 1 to 3 cm in diameter. The cap’s color can vary but often appears as pale brown to chestnut-brown. The stem is slender, and the mushroom’s overall appearance is relatively delicate.
Habitat-wise, Psilocybe mexicana is native to Mexico and Central America, particularly in regions with subtropical and tropical climates. It has been found growing in various habitats, including grasslands and forested areas. In its natural environment, it often associates with the roots of certain grasses.
One of the most significant aspects of Psilocybe mexicana is its historical and cultural significance. Indigenous peoples in Mexico, such as the Aztecs, are known to have used this mushroom in religious and shamanic ceremonies. The use of Psilocybe mexicana predates the arrival of Europeans in the Americas.
Psilocybe mexicana contains psychoactive compounds, including psilocybin and psilocin, similar to other psilocybin mushrooms. These compounds are responsible for the hallucinogenic effects that have made this species historically important in spiritual and cultural contexts.
Today, Psilocybe mexicana continues to be of interest to researchers and enthusiasts alike due to its rich history and the potential for its compounds to have therapeutic applications. As with all psychedelic substances, it’s essential to approach the use of Psilocybe mexicana with caution, respecting legal regulations and safety guidelines.
9. Psilocybe serbica
Silocybe serbica, also known as the “Serbian magic mushroom,” is a lesser-known species of psilocybin mushroom that has been documented in parts of Europe, particularly in the Balkan region. While it may not be as widely recognized as some other psilocybin-containing mushrooms, it holds its own place among enthusiasts and researchers.
In terms of appearance, Psilocybe serbica typically features a small to medium-sized cap, ranging from 1 to 4 cm in diameter. The cap’s color can vary but often appears as chestnut-brown or reddish-brown, with a distinctive conical or bell-shaped structure. The stem is slender, and the mushroom’s overall appearance is characterized by its delicate nature.
Habitat-wise, Psilocybe serbica is found in grassy areas, meadows, and pastures, particularly in regions with a temperate climate. It often grows in association with grass roots and decaying plant material. The specific geographic distribution of this species is relatively limited compared to some other psilocybin mushrooms.
Psilocybe serbica, like other members of the Psilocybe genus, contains psychoactive compounds, including psilocybin and psilocin. The concentrations of these compounds can vary among individual mushrooms and may be influenced by factors such as environmental conditions and substrate composition.
While Psilocybe serbica may not have the same historical or cultural significance as some other psilocybin-containing species, it has gained attention among those interested in the diversity of psychedelic fungi. As with any psychedelic substance, it’s essential to approach the use of Psilocybe serbica with caution, taking into account legal regulations and safety guidelines.
10. Psilocybe serbica var. Moravica
Silocybe serbica var. Moravica represents a specific variation or subspecies of Psilocybe serbica, the Serbian magic mushroom. Variations or subspecies within a species can exhibit certain distinct characteristics, which may include differences in appearance, habitat preferences, or other biological traits.
Regarding its appearance, Psilocybe serbica var. Moravica likely shares some common features with the typical Psilocybe serbica. It may have a small to medium-sized cap with a conical or bell-shaped structure, and the cap’s color could vary, often appearing as chestnut-brown or reddish-brown. The stem would typically be slender, and the overall appearance remains delicate.
As for its habitat, it’s probable that Psilocybe serbica var. Moravica is found in grassy areas, meadows, and pastures, similar to the typical Psilocybe serbica. It may also grow in association with grass roots and decaying plant material.
Like the standard Psilocybe serbica, this variation likely contains psychoactive compounds, including psilocybin and psilocin. The concentrations of these compounds can vary among individual mushrooms and may be influenced by environmental factors and substrate composition.
It’s important to note that information about specific variations or subspecies of Psilocybe mushrooms may not be as well-documented as the primary species, and their characteristics can vary. As with any psychedelic substance, it’s crucial to approach the use of Psilocybe serbica var. Moravica, or any similar mushroom, with caution, adhering to legal regulations and safety guidelines.
Conclusion
In conclusion, our exploration into the world of psychedelic mushrooms has revealed a fascinating intersection between ancient wisdom and modern science. As someone deeply involved in the field of psychedelic mental therapies, I’ve guided you through the intricacies of magic mushrooms, with a particular focus on their potency and chemical variability.
Through the meticulous analysis of tryptamine alkaloid concentrations, we’ve identified the 10 most potent magic mushrooms, characterized by their high levels of psilocin (PS) and psilocybin (PSB). These mushrooms are:
- Psilocybe cyanescens
- Psilocybe serbica var. bohemica
- Psilocybe semilanceata
- Psilocybe azurescens
- Psilocybe cubensis
- Psilocybe caerulipes
- Psilocybe ovoideocystidiata
- Psilocybe mexicana
- Psilocybe serbica
- Psilocybe serbica var. moravica
This classification is essential for those interested in psychedelic therapy and microdosing, where understanding the concentration of active compounds in wild mushrooms is critical. Our journey has showcased the use of cutting-edge techniques like ultra-high performance liquid chromatography paired with tandem mass spectrometry to precisely quantify these mystical compounds.
We’ve delved into a groundbreaking study conducted by Klára Gotvaldová, Jan Borovička, Kateřina Hájková, Petra Cihlářová, Alan Rockefeller, and Martin Kuchař. Their work, published in November 2022, expands our knowledge of psychotropic mushrooms and provides valuable insights into the concentrations of baeocystin (BA), norbaeocystin (NB), and aeruginascin (AE) in various mushroom species.
While Psilocybe species lead in PSB/PS concentrations, we’ve also noted the extraordinary variability in tryptamine concentrations among mushrooms. This variability presents challenges for consumers and therapists, emphasizing the importance of responsible use and the potential benefits of therapies using chemically pure PSB.
This article has shed light on the most recent scientific exploration in the field of psychedelic mushrooms, contributing significantly to our understanding of these enigmatic fungi. It’s a testament to the collaborative efforts of researchers who push the frontiers of knowledge. Join me in further exploring their findings and implications, and let’s continue to navigate this fascinating realm with respect, responsibility, and safety in mind.
